Arthur Schopenhauer

Arthur Schopenhauer[1†]

Arthur Schopenhauer (February 22, 1788 – September 21, 1860) was a renowned German philosopher, often referred to as the 'philosopher of pessimism’. He is best known for his seminal work “The World as Will and Representation” (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the phenomenal world as the manifestation of a blind and irrational noumenal will. His writings significantly influenced later existential philosophy and Freudian psychology. Schopenhauer’s other notable works include “On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason” (1813), “On Vision and Colors” (1816), and “Parerga and Paralipomena” (1851)[1†][2†][3†].

Early Years and Education

Arthur Schopenhauer was born on February 22, 1788, in the city of Danzig, which was then part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and later became known as Gdańsk, Poland[1†][2†][3†]. He was the son of Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer, a wealthy merchant, and Johanna Schopenhauer, a well-known author[1†][2†][4†]. His family was of German patrician descent, and although they came from a Protestant background, they were not particularly religious[1†][2†][5†]. Schopenhauer’s early life was marked by the cosmopolitan and liberal values of his parents, who were supporters of the French Revolution and held republican and Anglophile views[1†][2†][6†].

In 1793, when Danzig came under Prussian sovereignty, the Schopenhauer family moved to Hamburg[1†][2†]. Arthur received a gentlemanly private education, which included a brief period of schooling in Wimbledon, London, and two years in Le Havre, France, where he studied French[1†][2†][7†]. His education was heavily influenced by the Enlightenment ideals and a Pietistic attitude that emphasized the plight of humanity[1†][2†][8†].

In 1803, Schopenhauer accompanied his parents on an extensive journey through Belgium, England, France, Switzerland, and Austria[1†][2†]. This journey exposed him to various cultures and ideas, further shaping his intellectual development[1†][2†]. The sudden death of his father in April 1805 had a profound impact on him, leading to a significant change in his life[1†][2†]. His mother and sister moved to Weimar, where his mother became part of the literary circle that included Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Christoph Martin Wieland[1†][2†]. Arthur, however, remained in Hamburg for over a year, during which he had more freedom to pursue his interests in the arts and sciences[1†][2†].

In May 1807, Schopenhauer left Hamburg and spent the next two years in Gotha and Weimar, preparing for university[1†][2†]. In the fall of 1809, he enrolled at the University of Göttingen as a medical student but soon shifted his focus to the humanities, particularly the works of Plato and Immanuel Kant[1†][2†]. From 1811 to 1813, he attended the University of Berlin, where he studied under prominent philosophers such as Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Schleiermacher, although he did not find their teachings particularly inspiring[1†][2†]. During the summer of 1813, he completed his dissertation, “On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason,” which earned him a doctorate in philosophy from the University of Jena[1†][2†].

Career Development and Achievements

Arthur Schopenhauer’s career began with the publication of his doctoral dissertation, “On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason,” in 1813, which laid the foundation for his later work[2†][1†]. This dissertation established his reputation as a serious philosopher and introduced his concept of the will as the underlying reality of the world[2†][1†]. In 1814, Schopenhauer moved to Dresden, where he dedicated himself to developing his philosophical system[2†][1†]. During this period, he wrote “On Vision and Colors” (1816), which explored the physiological and psychological aspects of color perception[2†][1†].

In 1818, Schopenhauer published his magnum opus, “The World as Will and Representation,” which expanded on his earlier ideas and presented a comprehensive metaphysical system[2†][1†]. This work was initially met with little attention, but it later became one of the most influential philosophical texts of the 19th century[2†][1†]. Schopenhauer’s philosophy was characterized by its emphasis on the irrational and blind nature of the will, which he saw as the driving force behind all human actions and the source of suffering[2†][1†].

Despite the lack of immediate recognition, Schopenhauer continued to write and publish. In 1831, he released “The Art of Being Right,” a collection of rhetorical strategies for winning arguments[2†][1†]. This work demonstrated his keen interest in the practical applications of philosophy and his belief in the importance of effective communication[2†][1†]. In 1836, he published “On the Will in Nature,” which examined the manifestations of the will in the natural world and sought to provide empirical support for his metaphysical theories[2†][1†].

Schopenhauer’s career took a significant turn in 1839 when he won a prize from the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences for his essay "On the Freedom of the Will"[2†][1†]. This recognition brought him some measure of fame and helped to establish his reputation as a leading philosopher[2†][1†]. The following year, he published “On the Basis of Morality,” in which he argued that compassion is the foundation of ethical behavior[2†][1†]. This work further developed his ideas on ethics and morality, which were deeply influenced by his pessimistic view of human nature[2†][1†].

In 1844, Schopenhauer published the second volume of “The World as Will and Representation,” which included additional essays and elaborations on his earlier work[2†][1†]. This publication marked a turning point in his career, as it began to attract more attention and recognition from the philosophical community[2†][1†]. Schopenhauer’s ideas started to gain traction, and he began to influence a new generation of thinkers, including Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud[2†][1†].

In 1851, Schopenhauer published “Parerga and Paralipomena,” a collection of essays and aphorisms that covered a wide range of topics, including philosophy, religion, and aesthetics[2†][1†]. This work was well-received and helped to solidify his reputation as a major philosopher[2†][1†]. The success of “Parerga and Paralipomena” brought Schopenhauer the recognition he had long sought, and he spent his later years enjoying the fruits of his labor[2†][1†].

Throughout his career, Schopenhauer remained committed to his philosophical vision, despite the lack of immediate recognition and the challenges he faced[2†][1†]. His work laid the groundwork for many later developments in philosophy, psychology, and the arts[2†][1†]. Schopenhauer’s emphasis on the irrational aspects of human nature and his exploration of the will as the driving force behind all actions had a profound impact on existentialism, psychoanalysis, and modernist literature[2†][1†]. His ideas continue to be studied and debated by scholars and philosophers to this day[2†][1†].

First publication of his main works

• On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (Ueber die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde, 1813): This work, Schopenhauer’s doctoral dissertation, explores the principle of sufficient reason, which states that nothing is without a reason for being[1†][2†]. It laid the foundation for his later philosophical inquiries[1†][3†][4†].
• On Vision and Colors (Ueber das Sehn und die Farben, 1816): In this treatise, Schopenhauer examines the physiological and psychological aspects of vision and color perception, critiquing Goethe’s theory of colors[1†][5†][6†]. It reflects his interest in empirical science and its philosophical implications[1†][10†].
• The World as Will and Representation (Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, 1818-1819, expanded in 1844): This magnum opus presents Schopenhauer’s central thesis that the world is driven by a blind, irrational will[1†][11†][12†]. The first volume was published in 1818, with a second volume added in 1844, expanding on his metaphysical and ethical ideas[1†][13†].
• The Art of Being Right / The Art of Controversy (Eristische Dialektik: Die Kunst, Recht zu Behalten, 1831): This posthumously published work consists of thirty-eight stratagems for winning arguments, regardless of the truth. It showcases Schopenhauer’s keen insight into human nature and rhetorical tactics[1†].
• On the Will in Nature (Ueber den Willen in der Natur, 1836): Here, Schopenhauer integrates his metaphysical concept of the will with contemporary scientific knowledge. He argues that natural phenomena can be understood as manifestations of the will[1†].
• On the Freedom of the Will (Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens, 1838): This essay, which won the Norwegian Royal Society of Sciences prize, delves into the nature of human free will and determinism. Schopenhauer contends that while humans are free to will, their actions are determined by their character and motives[1†].
• On the Basis of Morality (Ueber die Grundlage der Moral, 1839): In this work, Schopenhauer critiques Kantian ethics and proposes compassion as the foundation of moral behavior. It reflects his belief in the primacy of the will and the importance of empathy[1†].
• Parerga and Paralipomena (Parerga und Paralipomena, 1851): This collection of essays and aphorisms covers a wide range of topics, including philosophy, religion, and aesthetics. It gained Schopenhauer significant recognition and established his reputation as a leading philosopher[1†]

Analysis and Evaluation

Arthur Schopenhauer’s philosophical style is marked by its clarity and directness, a stark contrast to the often convoluted prose of his contemporaries[1†][2†]. His writing is imbued with a profound sense of pessimism, reflecting his belief that human existence is fundamentally driven by an irrational and insatiable will[1†][3†][4†]. This central idea, articulated in “The World as Will and Representation,” posits that the will is the underlying reality of the world, manifesting itself in various forms and leading to perpetual suffering[1†][5†][6†]. Schopenhauer’s emphasis on the will as the core of existence was heavily influenced by Immanuel Kant’s transcendental idealism, yet he diverged by rejecting the optimistic elements of Kantian philosophy[1†][10†].

Schopenhauer’s work also shows significant influences from Eastern philosophies, particularly Buddhism and Hinduism[1†][11†][12†]. He was one of the first Western philosophers to integrate concepts such as asceticism and the denial of the self into his metaphysical framework[1†][13†]. This incorporation of Eastern thought provided a unique perspective within Western philosophy, challenging the dominant paradigms of his time. His critique of contemporary German idealism, especially the works of Hegel, further distinguished his philosophical stance.

The impact of Schopenhauer’s philosophy extends beyond metaphysics into ethics, aesthetics, and psychology. His ethical views, centered on compassion and the alleviation of suffering, contrast sharply with the rationalist and utilitarian approaches prevalent in his era. In aesthetics, Schopenhauer’s ideas about the sublime and the role of art in providing a temporary escape from the will’s tyranny have influenced numerous artists and writers. His psychological insights, particularly his understanding of the unconscious and the irrational aspects of human behavior, prefigured many concepts later developed by Sigmund Freud[1†].

Despite the initial lack of recognition during his lifetime, Schopenhauer’s legacy grew significantly posthumously. His ideas have left an indelible mark on existential philosophy, with thinkers like Friedrich Nietzsche and Jean-Paul Sartre drawing on his notions of will and suffering. Schopenhauer’s influence is also evident in the works of prominent writers such as Thomas Mann and Marcel Proust, who explored themes of existential angst and the human condition. His contributions to the philosophy of pessimism have established him as a pivotal figure in the history of Western thought[1†].

In evaluating Schopenhauer’s place in history, it is clear that his work represents a critical juncture between classical German philosophy and modern existentialism. His integration of Eastern and Western philosophical traditions, coupled with his profound insights into human nature, have ensured his enduring relevance. Schopenhauer’s legacy is not merely confined to academic philosophy; his ideas continue to resonate in contemporary discussions on the nature of suffering, the role of art, and the complexities of human motivation[1†].

Personal Life

Arthur Schopenhauer was born on February 22, 1788, in Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland), to Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer, a wealthy merchant, and Johanna Schopenhauer, a well-known author and intellectual[1†][2†]. His family moved to Hamburg in 1793 after Danzig came under Prussian control[1†][2†]. Schopenhauer’s father, Heinrich, was a cosmopolitan and a supporter of the French Revolution, which influenced Arthur’s early education and worldview[1†][2†].

Schopenhauer’s relationship with his mother, Johanna, was complex and often strained[1†][2†]. Johanna was a successful writer and hosted a literary salon in Weimar, which brought her into contact with many prominent intellectuals of the time, including Johann Wolfgang von Goethe[1†][2†]. Despite her success, Arthur and Johanna had frequent disagreements, particularly after the death of Heinrich in 1805, which led to a permanent estrangement[1†][2†].

Arthur Schopenhauer never married and had no children[1†][2†]. He had a few close friendships but generally preferred solitude, which he believed was essential for philosophical contemplation[1†][2†]. Schopenhauer’s personal life was marked by his pessimistic outlook, which was reflected in his philosophical works[1†][2†].

In his later years, Schopenhauer lived in Frankfurt, where he continued to write and publish his works[1†][2†]. He enjoyed the company of his pet poodles, which he named Atma and Butz, and he often took long walks with them[1†][2†]. Schopenhauer’s health declined in his final years, and he passed away on September 21, 1860, at the age of 72[1†][2†].

Conclusion and Legacy

Arthur Schopenhauer’s philosophical legacy is profound and far-reaching, influencing a wide array of disciplines including philosophy, literature, psychology, and the arts[1†][2†]. His concept of the “will” as the fundamental force of nature and human existence challenged the prevailing philosophical paradigms of his time, particularly Hegelian idealism[1†][2†]. Schopenhauer’s pessimistic worldview, which posited that life is driven by an insatiable and irrational will leading to inevitable suffering, laid the groundwork for existentialist thought and influenced later philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche and Jean-Paul Sartre[1†][2†].

Despite being largely ignored during his lifetime, Schopenhauer’s ideas gained significant recognition posthumously[1†][2†]. His writings on aesthetics, particularly his views on the sublime and the beautiful, have had a lasting impact on the field of art theory[1†][2†]. Schopenhauer’s influence extends to the realm of psychology, where his ideas about the unconscious mind prefigured some of the key concepts later developed by Sigmund Freud[1†][2†].

Schopenhauer’s legacy is also evident in literature, with writers such as Thomas Mann, Marcel Proust, and Jorge Luis Borges drawing inspiration from his works[1†][2†]. His philosophical pessimism resonated with many artists and intellectuals who grappled with the existential crises of the modern age[1†][2†]. Schopenhauer’s emphasis on the importance of art and music as a means of transcending the suffering inherent in human existence has been particularly influential[1†][2†].

Today, Arthur Schopenhauer is remembered as one of the most important and original thinkers of the 19th century[1†][2†]. His works continue to be studied and debated, and his ideas remain relevant in contemporary philosophical discourse[1†][2†]. Schopenhauer’s legacy is a testament to the enduring power of his thought and the profound impact he has had on the intellectual landscape of the modern world[1†][2†].

Key Information

• Also Known As: Unknown[1†][2†][4†][5†][3†].
• Born: February 22, 1788, Gdańsk, Poland[1†][2†][4†][5†][3†].
• Died: September 21, 1860, Frankfurt, Germany, aged 72[1†][2†][4†][5†][3†].
• Nationality: German[1†][2†][4†][5†][3†].
• Occupation: Philosopher[1†][2†][4†][5†][3†].
• Notable Works: “The World as Will and Representation” (expanded in 1844), “On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason” (1813), “On Vision and Colors” (1816), “Theory of Colors” (1830), “The Art of Being Right” (1831), “On the Will in Nature” (1836), “On the Freedom of the Will” (1838), “On the Basis of Morality” (1839), “Parerga and Paralipomena” (1851)[1†][2†][4†][5†][3†].
• Notable Achievements: Influenced existential philosophy and Freudian psychology[1†][2†][4†][5†][3†].

References and Citations:

1. Wikipedia (English) - Arthur Schopenhauer [website] - link
2. Britannica - Arthur Schopenhauer: German philosopher [website] - link
3. Harvard University Press - Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy [website] - link
4. Internet Archive - Schopenhauer : a biography : Cartwright, David E., author [website] - link
5. Cambridge University Press - Schopenhauer biography [website] - link
6. Cambridge University Press - Schopenhauer biography [website] - link
7. Britannica Kids - Arthur Schopenhauer [website] - link
8. Psi Encyclopedia - Arthur Schopenhauer [website] - link
9. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy and its Authors - Schopenhauer, Arthur [website] - link
10. Goodreads - Author: Books by Arthur Schopenhauer (Author of The Art of Always Being Right) [website] - link
11. The Project Gutenberg - Books by Schopenhauer, Arthur (sorted by popularity) [website] - link
12. Penguin Random House - Arthur Schopenhauer [website] - link
13. Wikisource (English) - Arthur Schopenhauer [website] - link