Michel Foucault

Michel Foucault[2†]

Michel Foucault, born as Paul-Michel Foucault on October 15, 1926, in Poitiers, France, was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, writer, political activist, and literary critic[1†][2†]. He is recognized as one of the most influential and controversial scholars of the post-World War II period[1†]. His theories primarily address the relationships between power and knowledge, and how they are used as a form of social control through societal institutions[1†][2†].

Foucault was educated at the Lycée Henri-IV, at the École Normale Supérieure, where he developed an interest in philosophy and came under the influence of his tutors Jean Hyppolite and Louis Althusser, and at the University of Paris (Sorbonne), where he earned degrees in philosophy and psychology[1†][2†]. His thought has influenced academics, especially those working in communication studies, anthropology, psychology, sociology, criminology, cultural studies, literary theory, feminism, Marxism, and critical theory[1†][2†].

Early Years and Education

Michel Foucault was born on October 15, 1926, in Poitiers, France, into an upper-middle-class family[1†][2†]. His father, Paul Foucault, was an eminent surgeon who hoped his son would join him in the profession[1†][3†]. However, Foucault resisted what he regarded as the provincialism of his upbringing and his native country[1†].

Foucault’s early education was a mix of success and mediocrity until he attended the Jesuit Collège Saint-Stanislas, where he excelled[1†][3†]. He later attended Lycée Henri-IV, one of the most competitive and demanding high schools in Paris[1†][4†]. Despite a troubled relationship with his father, who bullied him for being “delinquent,” Foucault managed to excel in his studies[1†][4†].

In 1945, against his father’s wishes that he pursued a medical career, Foucault began to study philosophy with the famous French existentialist philosopher Jean Hyppolite[1†][5†]. Hyppolite’s ideas involving the fact that philosophy should be developed through a thorough study of history influenced Michel Foucault’s future philosophical works[1†][5†].

At the age of 20, Foucault gained entry to the École Normale Supérieure (ENS) in Paris in 1946[1†][2†]. There he studied psychology and philosophy, embraced and then abandoned communism, and established a reputation as a sedulous, brilliant, and eccentric student[1†]. After graduating in 1952, Foucault began a career marked by constant movement, both professional and intellectual[1†].

He first taught at the University of Lille, then spent five years (1955–60) as a cultural attaché in Uppsala, Sweden; Warsaw, Poland; and Hamburg, West Germany (now Germany)[1†]. Foucault defended his doctoral dissertation at the ENS in 1961[1†].

Career Development and Achievements

After graduating in 1952, Foucault began a career marked by constant movement, both professional and intellectual[1†][2†]. He first taught at the University of Lille, then spent five years (1955–60) as a cultural attaché in Uppsala, Sweden; Warsaw, Poland; and Hamburg, West Germany (now Germany)[1†][2†]. Foucault defended his doctoral dissertation at the ENS in 1961[1†][2†].

His first major book, “The History of Madness” (1961), won critical praise but a limited audience[1†]. After obtaining work between 1960 and 1966 at the University of Clermont-Ferrand in France, he produced “The Birth of the Clinic” (1963) and “The Order of Things” (1966), publications that displayed his increasing involvement with structuralism, from which he later distanced himself[1†][2†]. These first three histories exemplified a historiographical technique Foucault was developing called "archaeology"[1†][2†].

From 1966 to 1968, Foucault lectured at the University of Tunis before returning to France, where he became head of the philosophy department at the new experimental university of Paris VIII[1†][2†]. His academic career culminated in a 1970 appointment as “professor of history of systems of thought” at France’s most prestigious university – the College de France[1†][6†].

Foucault’s work on power, and the relationships among power, knowledge, and discourse, has been widely discussed and applied[1†][3†]. His most well-known works include “Discipline and Punish”, “The History of Sexuality”, and "The Archaeology of Knowledge"[1†][4†]. His theories primarily address the relationships between power and knowledge, and how they are used as a form of social control through societal institutions[1†][2†].

First Publication of His Main Works

Michel Foucault’s work has had a profound impact on a wide range of disciplines, and his major works have shaped fields such as sociology, philosophy, and history of ideas[2†][1†]. Here are some of his main works:

• “Madness and Civilization” (1961): This was Foucault’s first major book, and it explored the evolving concept of madness in Europe from the Middle Ages to the end of the 19th century[2†][1†]. It won critical praise but had a limited audience[2†][1†].

• “The Birth of the Clinic” (1963): In this work, Foucault traces the development of the medical profession, and specifically the institution of the clinique (clinic). His analysis includes the concept of “medical gaze” and the power dynamics in clinical settings[2†][1†].

• “The Order of Things” (1966): This publication marked Foucault’s increasing involvement with structuralism. The book had a significant impact and brought Foucault into the limelight as one of the most original and controversial thinkers of his day[2†][1†].

• “Discipline and Punish” (1975): This well-known work offers a history of the modern criminal justice system and its methods of surveillance, discipline, and punishment[2†][4†].

• “The History of Sexuality” (1976): This is a multivolume history of Western sexuality. In this work, Foucault explores the relationship between power, knowledge, and sexuality, and introduces the concept of "bio-power"[2†][4†].

Foucault’s works have been influential in shaping several academic subfields, including the sociology of knowledge, gender studies, queer theory, critical theory, deviance and crime, and the sociology of education[2†][4†].

Analysis and Evaluation

Michel Foucault’s work has been the subject of extensive analysis and evaluation. His theories on power, knowledge, and discourse have significantly influenced a wide range of academic disciplines[7†][8†].

Foucault’s concept of ‘discursive practice’ has been applied to fields such as educational evaluation[7†]. His perspective suggests that evaluation technologies can be seen as an expression of ‘the will to power’, leading to a critical examination of these technologies[7†].

In his Archaeological and Genealogical periods, Foucault developed his conceptions of discourse[7†][8†]. His Archaeological conceptions focused on the discourse-subject relationship and the rules of discursive formations[7†][8†]. During his Genealogical period, Foucault shifted his focus to power, viewing discourse as a manifestation of the will to power[7†][8†].

Critiques of Foucault’s discussions of discourse have been extensive, spanning philosophy, literature, sociology, and organization studies[7†][8†]. Despite the critiques, Foucault’s theories continue to provide inspiration, concepts, and analytical frameworks for scholars in various fields[7†][8†].

Foucault’s work has also been applied to education policy analysis, exploring the ‘hows’ and ‘whos’ of education policy, its technologies, and its subjectivities[7†][9†].

Overall, Michel Foucault’s work has been both influential and controversial, sparking extensive analysis, evaluation, and ongoing debate in the academic community[7†][8†][9†].

Personal Life

Michel Foucault was known to be a complex and many-sided character[2†]. His personal life was marked by his experiences with mental health and his exploration of his sexuality[2†][5†][3†].

Foucault’s struggles with mental health began during his time at the École Normale Supérieure, where he suffered from acute depression[2†][3†]. These experiences led him to seek psychiatric help[2†][10†][3†]. His encounters with psychiatry, both personally and professionally, would later influence his philosophical views on power, knowledge, and the social institutions that govern these concepts[2†].

In terms of his personal relationships, Foucault was known to have had homosexual relationships with various men that he met in the underground gay scene in Paris[2†][5†]. His long-term partner was Daniel Defert, a relationship that was significant throughout his life[2†].

Despite his personal struggles, Foucault was described as having an "enormous capacity for work"[2†]. His personal experiences, both challenging and rewarding, undoubtedly shaped his philosophical ideas and contributions[2†].

Conclusion and Legacy

Michel Foucault’s legacy is vast and influential, extending across various fields of study, including sociology, philosophy, and critical theory. His work has resonated in the field of security studies, foregrounding the biopolitical imperative at the heart of liberal governance[11†]. His ideas have been instrumental in understanding how institutions, through the use of discourse, create subject categories for people to inhabit, turning people into objects of scrutiny and knowledge[4†].

Foucault’s key intellectual contribution was his ability to illustrate that institutions like science, medicine, and the penal system, through the use of discourse, create subject categories for people to inhabit, and turn people into objects of scrutiny and knowledge[4†]. His work has inspired sociologists in subfields including sociology of knowledge; gender, sexuality and queer theory; critical theory; deviance and crime; and the sociology of education.

Foucault, who refused to be put into any one category, maintained that “The main interest in life and work is to become someone else that you were not at the beginning.”[12†] This quote encapsulates the essence of Foucault’s philosophy and his approach to understanding power, knowledge, and the self[12†].

Undeniably one of the most influential intellectuals of his time, Foucault’s work continues to be studied and referenced, and his ideas continue to shape critical thought and our understanding of power, knowledge, and institutions[11†][4†][12†].

Key Information

• Also Known As: Paul-Michel Foucault[1†][2†]
• Born: October 15, 1926, Poitiers, France[1†][2†]
• Died: June 25, 1984, Paris, France[1†][2†]
• Nationality: French[1†][2†]
• Occupation: Philosopher, historian of ideas, writer, political activist, and literary critic[1†][2†]
• Notable Works: “Madness and Civilization” (1961), “The Birth of the Clinic” (1963), “The Order of Things” (1966), “Discipline and Punish” (1975), “The History of Sexuality” (1976)[1†][2†]
• Notable Achievements: Foucault’s theories primarily address the relationships between power and knowledge, and how they are used as a form of social control through societal institutions[1†][2†]. His thought has influenced academics, especially those working in communication studies, anthropology, psychology, sociology, criminology, cultural studies, literary theory, feminism, Marxism, and critical theory[1†][2†].

References and Citations:

1. Britannica - Michel Foucault: French philosopher and historian [website] - link
2. Wikipedia (English) - Michel Foucault [website] - link
3. New World Encyclopedia - Michel Foucault [website] - link
4. ThoughtCo - Sociologist Michel Foucault [website] - link
5. Totallyhistory.com - Michel Foucault Biography - Life of French Philosopher [website] - link
6. The Conversation - Explainer: the ideas of Foucault [website] - link
7. Taylor and Francis Online - Just a moment... [website] - link
8. Cambridge University Press - Discourse, Interpretation, Organization - Chapter: Critical approaches: Michel Foucault's conceptions of discourse (Chapter 4) [website] - link
9. Routledge - Michel Foucault and Education Policy Analysis - 1st Edition - Stephen [website] - link
10. Simple Wikipedia (English) - Michel Foucault [website] - link
11. JSTOR - Foucault's Legacy: Security, War and Violence in the 21st Century [website] - link
12. Legacy Project Chicago - Michel Foucault [website] - link