René Descartes

René Descartes[1†]

René Descartes (31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650) was a French philosopher, scientist, and mathematician, widely considered a seminal figure in the emergence of modern philosophy and science[1†]. He is often considered a precursor to the rationalist school of thought[1†][2†]. His vast contributions to the fields of mathematics and philosophy, individually as well as holistically, helped push Western knowledge forward during the scientific revolution[1†][2†].

Early Years and Education

René Descartes was born on March 31, 1596, in La Haye, Touraine, France[3†][4†]. His father, Joachim, served in the Parliament of Brittany, France[3†][4†]. His mother, Jeanne Brochard Descartes, passed away in 1597[3†][4†]. After her death, René and his older brother and sister were raised by their maternal grandmother and a nurse, for whom he retained a deep affection[3†][4†].

In 1606, Descartes entered La Flèche, a Jesuit religious college established for the education of the sons of noblemen[3†][4†][5†]. As a child, he was often ill and was allowed to spend a portion of each day studying in bed[3†][4†]. He used this time for meditation and thought[3†][4†]. According to Descartes’s description of his eight-year course of studies at La Flèche, he often felt embarrassed at the extent of his own ignorance[3†][4†].

After leaving college at age eighteen, Descartes earned a law degree in Poitiers, France[3†][4†]. From 1618 to 1628, he traveled throughout Europe as a soldier[3†][4†]. Living on income from inherited properties, Descartes served without pay and saw little action[3†][4†]. He was present, however, at one of the major battles of the Thirty Years War (1618–48)[3†][4†]. Descartes sought out famous mathematicians, scientists, and philosophers wherever he traveled[3†][4†]. The most significant of these friendships was with Isaac Beeckman, a Dutch mathematician, who encouraged Descartes to begin writing scientific theories on mathematics and music[3†][4†].

Career Development and Achievements

René Descartes’s career was marked by a series of significant contributions to philosophy, mathematics, and science[6†]. After earning a law degree in Poitiers, France, he traveled throughout Europe as a soldier from 1618 to 1628[6†][4†]. During this time, he sought out famous mathematicians, scientists, and philosophers, developing friendships and engaging in intellectual discourse[6†].

In 1628, Descartes settled in Holland, where he would remain until 1649[6†][7†]. His ambition was to introduce into philosophy the rigour and clarity of mathematics[6†][7†]. This led him to develop a system of methodical doubt, dismissing apparent knowledge derived from authority, the senses, and reason, and erecting new epistemic foundations based on the intuition that, when he is thinking, he exists[6†][3†]. This he expressed in the dictum “I think, therefore I am”[6†][3†].

Descartes’s metaphysics is rationalist, based on the postulation of innate ideas of mind, matter, and God[6†][3†]. However, his physics and physiology, based on sensory experience, are mechanistic and empiricist[6†][3†]. He developed a metaphysical dualism that distinguishes radically between mind, the essence of which is thinking, and matter, the essence of which is extension in three dimensions[6†][3†].

In 1637, Descartes published “Discourse on the Method”, one of the most influential works in the history of modern philosophy[6†]. The book was divided into six parts, covering a range of topics from natural sciences to physics, the human heart, and the soul of all living objects[6†]. It also included three accompanying essays: Dioptrics; The Meteors; and Geometry[6†].

Descartes’s contributions to mathematics were equally groundbreaking. He invented the Cartesian coordinate system and developed analytic geometry, laying the foundation for the development of calculus[6†]. His work in physics, most prominently in the field of optics, was also groundbreaking[6†].

First Publication of His Main Works

René Descartes’s philosophical and scientific contributions are encapsulated in his major works, which have had a profound impact on various fields of study[8†][1†].

• Discourse on Method: Published in 1637, this work outlines Descartes’s philosophical method, which involves doubting all things until arriving at an undeniable truth[8†]. It is in this work that he first introduces the famous dictum, "I think, therefore I am"[8†][9†].
• Meditations on First Philosophy: Published in 1641, this work delves into metaphysical questions about existence, reality, and knowledge[8†]. It is in this work that Descartes presents his arguments for the existence of God and the distinction between the mind and the body[8†].
• Principles of Philosophy: Published in 1644, this work is a comprehensive exposition of Descartes’s philosophical system, covering topics from epistemology and metaphysics to physics and cosmology[8†].
• Rules for the Direction of the Mind: Although this work was not published until after Descartes’s death, it provides valuable insights into his method of inquiry[8†].
• Passions of the Soul: This work, documenting his correspondence with Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia, essays his thoughts on morality and psychology[8†][10†].

These works collectively represent Descartes’s revolutionary approach to philosophy and science, laying the groundwork for modern rationalism and the scientific method[8†][1†]. His ideas continue to influence philosophical, scientific, and mathematical thought to this day[8†][1†].

Analysis and Evaluation

René Descartes’s philosophical and scientific works have been the subject of extensive analysis and evaluation[8†][11†][12†][13†]. His method of systematic doubt and the subsequent establishment of knowledge is considered a significant turning point in the history of philosophy[8†][12†].

Descartes’s method of analysis and synthesis, as outlined in his works, has been interpreted in various ways[8†][11†]. The core of this distinction lies in the treatment of first principles: analytic demonstrations motivate their first principles, while synthetic demonstrations merely clarify them[8†][11†]. This methodological distinction is evident in his major works, suggesting that Descartes employed analysis in each of his major works treating metaphysics[8†][11†].

His philosophical system, particularly his metaphysical dualism distinguishing between mind and matter, has been both praised for its originality and criticized for its implications[8†][12†]. Despite the controversies, Descartes’s philosophy has undeniably shaped the course of Western philosophy[8†].

In the realm of science, Descartes’s contributions to the development of analytic geometry have been widely recognized[8†]. His mechanistic approach to physics and physiology, though later superseded by Newtonian physics, played a crucial role in moving away from Aristotelian physics[8†].

Descartes’s works continue to be studied and debated, attesting to their enduring relevance and influence[8†][13†]. His philosophical and scientific ideas have not only shaped their respective fields but also left a lasting impact on how we understand the world[8†][11†][12†][13†].

Personal Life

René Descartes was born on March 31, 1596, in La Haye, France[4†]. His father, Joachim, served in the Parliament of Brittany, France[4†]. Jeanne Brochard Descartes, his mother, died in 1597[4†]. His father remarried and René and his older brother and sister were raised by their maternal grandmother and by a nurse for whom he retained a deep affection[4†].

In 1635, Descartes fathered a child, Francine, with a Dutch servant woman, Helena Jans van der Strom[4†][14†]. Tragically, Francine died of scarlet fever at the age of five[4†][14†]. Of Francine’s death, Descartes wrote, "I am not one of those philosophers who think a man should not cry"[4†][14†].

Like the Rosicrucians, Descartes lived alone and in seclusion[4†][3†]. He changed his residence often (during his 22 years in the Netherlands, he lived in 18 different places)[4†][3†], practiced medicine without charge, and attempted to increase human longevity[4†][3†]. He took an optimistic view of the capacity of science to improve the human condition[4†][3†]. At the end of his life, he left a chest of personal papers (none of which has survived) with a Rosicrucian physician—his close friend Corneille van Hogelande, who handled his affairs in the Netherlands[4†][3†].

Conclusion and Legacy

René Descartes’ legacy is multifaceted and enduring. His mechanistic view of the natural world, which held that all physical phenomena can be explained in terms of matter and motion, paved the way for the scientific revolution and the development of modern physics[15†]. He is remembered as one of the first to abandon Scholastic Aristotelianism[15†][3†], and he promoted the development of a new science grounded in observation and experiment[15†][3†].

Descartes’ metaphysics is rationalist, based on the postulation of innate ideas of mind, matter, and God[15†][3†]. However, his physics and physiology, based on sensory experience, are mechanistic and empiricist[15†][3†]. He developed a metaphysical dualism that distinguishes radically between mind, the essence of which is thinking, and matter, the essence of which is extension in three dimensions[15†][3†][16†].

Descartes’ philosophy has had a profound influence on subsequent Western philosophy, particularly on the sciences, and he is regarded as one of the key figures of the Scientific Revolution[15†][17†][3†]. Despite the controversial philosophical arguments of his time, Descartes’ influence in mathematics is undeniable; he is credited with developing Cartesian geometry, which uses algebra to describe geometry[15†][3†].

Descartes’ work continues to be a subject of scholarly study, and his philosophical ideas continue to be influential in the academic world[15†][17†][3†].

Key Information

• Also Known As: Renatus Cartesius[1†]
• Born: March 31, 1596, La Haye, Touraine, France[1†][3†][1†]
• Died: February 11, 1650, Stockholm, Sweden[1†][3†][1†]
• Nationality: French[1†][3†][1†]
• Occupation: Mathematician, Scientist, Philosopher[1†][3†][1†]
• Notable Works: “La Géométrie”, “Letter to Voetius”, “Meditations on First Philosophy”, “Principles of Philosophy”, “Rules for the Direction of the Mind”, “The Discourse on Method”, “The Passions of the Soul”, "The World"[1†][3†]
• Notable Achievements: Descartes is known for his epistemological foundationalism as expressed in the cogito (‘I think, therefore I am’), his metaphysical dualism, and his rationalism based on innate ideas of mind, matter, and God[1†][3†][1†]. He developed a metaphysical dualism that distinguishes radically between mind, the essence of which is thinking, and matter, the essence of which is extension in three dimensions[1†][3†]. Descartes’s metaphysics is rationalist, based on the postulation of innate ideas of mind, matter, and God, but his physics and physiology, based on sensory experience, are mechanistic and empiricist[1†][3†].

References and Citations:

1. Wikipedia (English) - René Descartes [website] - link
2. Britannica - Who was René Descartes? [website] - link
3. Britannica - Rene Descartes: French mathematician and philosopher [website] - link
4. Encyclopedia of World Biography - RenÉ Descartes Biography [website] - link
5. Britannica Kids - René Descartes [website] - link
6. 10 Major Contributions And Accomplishments - Rene Descartes [website] - link
7. Britannica - Rene Descartes as a mathematician and philosopher [website] - link
8. SparkNotes - Selected Works of René Descartes: Study Guide [website] - link
9. Goodreads - Author: René Descartes (Author of Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy) [website] - link
10. ealthResearchFunding.org - 6 Major Accomplishments of Rene Descartes [website] - link
11. Oxford Academic - The Oxford Handbook of Descartes and Cartesianism - Descartes on the Method of Analysis [website] - link
12. Academia - René Descartes: Faith and Foundationalism An Exposition and Evaluation of Descartes' Existence of God [website] - link
13. Oxford Academic - Oxford Academic - Essays on the Philosophy and Science of René Descartes [website] - link
14. Britannica - René Descartes Facts [website] - link
15. DeepThinkers - What Is Descartes' Conclusion? A Comprehensive Overview - DeepThinkers [website] - link
16. Britannica - René Descartes - Rationalism, Dualism, Philosophy [website] - link
17. Britannica - René Descartes - Philosophy, Mathematics, Legacy [website] - link