Xenophon

Xenophon[2†]

Xenophon of Athens (c. 430 – 354 BCE) was a prominent Greek historian, philosopher, and military leader[1†][2†]. Born in Attica, Greece, Xenophon was a student of the renowned philosopher Socrates[1†][2†][3†]. His works, which provide a valuable depiction of late Classical Greece, have had a significant influence on both Greek and Latin literature[1†][2†].

Early Years and Education

Xenophon was born around 430 BCE in the deme Erchia of Athens[2†][4†]. His father, Gryllus, belonged to a wealthy equestrian family[2†]. As a young man, Xenophon was part of the circle around Socrates[2†][4†], and he studied under the renowned philosopher[2†][1†][5†]. This early association with Socratic thought would have a profound influence on Xenophon’s philosophical and historical writings[2†][5†].

Despite his aristocratic birth, Xenophon’s exact date of birth and details about his early education remain largely unknown[2†][4†]. However, given his later accomplishments and the depth of his intellectual contributions, it can be inferred that Xenophon received a comprehensive education typical of Athenian youths of his status. This would have included training in rhetoric, philosophy, and the military arts, all of which would serve him well in his later life[2†][1†].

Xenophon’s early years were marked by the social and political upheavals of Athens. The city-state was recovering from the devastating Peloponnesian War, and the philosophical teachings of Socrates offered a counterpoint to the prevailing political discourse[2†]. Xenophon’s exposure to these diverse influences during his formative years likely shaped his pragmatic approach to both philosophy and history[2†].

Career Development and Achievements

Xenophon’s career was marked by a series of significant events and contributions to both military strategy and literature[1†][2†].

At the age of 30, Xenophon was elected commander of one of the biggest Greek mercenary armies of the Achaemenid Empire, the Ten Thousand[1†][2†]. This army marched on and came close to capturing Babylon in 401 BC[1†][2†]. His experiences with this army formed the basis of his highly regarded work, the Anabasis[1†][2†]. The Anabasis recounts his adventures with the Ten Thousand during the service of Cyrus the Younger, Cyrus’s failed campaign to claim the Persian throne from Artaxerxes II of Persia, and the return of Greek mercenaries after Cyrus’s death in the Battle of Cunaxa[1†][2†].

Xenophon’s works also include the Cyropaedia, which outlines the military and political methods used by Cyrus the Great to conquer the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC[1†][2†]. His writings inspired Alexander the Great and other Greeks to conquer Babylon and the Achaemenid Empire in 331 BC[1†][2†].

Despite being born an Athenian citizen, Xenophon came to be associated with Sparta, the traditional opponent of Athens[1†][2†]. His works have fueled debates for at least two millennia about whether to place Xenophon with generals, historians, or philosophers[1†][2†]. Today, Xenophon is best known for his historical works[1†][2†].

First Publication of His Main Works

Xenophon’s works are numerous and cover a wide range of topics, reflecting his diverse interests and experiences. Here are some of his main works:

• Anabasis[2†][1†]: This work recounts Xenophon’s adventures with the Ten Thousand, a Greek mercenary army in the service of Cyrus the Younger. The narrative covers Cyrus’s failed campaign to claim the Persian throne from Artaxerxes II of Persia and the return of the Greek mercenaries after Cyrus’s death in the Battle of Cunaxa[2†]. Anabasis is a unique first-hand account of a military leader’s experience in antiquity[2†].
• Cyropaedia[2†][1†]: This work outlines the military and political methods used by Cyrus the Great to conquer the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC[2†]. It was inspired by Xenophon’s campaign in Asia Minor and in Babylon[2†][1†].
• Hellenica[2†][6†]: This historical work continues directly from the final sentence of Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War. It covers the last seven years of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) and the subsequent forty-two years (404 BC–362 BC) ending with the Second Battle of Mantinea[2†].
• Memorabilia[2†][1†]: This tribute to Socrates recounts several Socratic dialogues and provides a chronicle of the philosopher’s trial in 399 BC[2†]. It was inspired by Xenophon’s youthful association with Socrates[2†][1†].
• Symposium[2†][1†]: This is another Socratic dialogue recounted by Xenophon[2†].
• Oeconomicus[2†][1†]: This Socratic dialogue focuses on household management[2†].
• Hiero[2†][1†]: This work may have originated from a visit to Sicily[2†][1†].
• Agesilaus[2†]: This work is a eulogy of Agesilaus II, the king of Sparta and a friend of Xenophon[2†].
• Constitution of the Lacedaemonians[2†]: This work describes the Spartan political and social systems[2†].

Xenophon’s works have had a significant influence on both ancient and modern literature. His detailed accounts of military campaigns and his philosophical dialogues provide valuable insights into the Classical period[2†][1†].

Analysis and Evaluation

Xenophon’s works have been the subject of extensive analysis and evaluation by scholars. His writings are valued not only for their historical content but also for their ethical principles and insights into the socio-political dynamics of his time[7†].

Xenophon’s Anabasis is particularly noted for its detailed account of military strategy and tactics, as well as its exploration of leadership challenges[7†][8†]. The work can be seen as Xenophon’s response to other accounts of the same events, offering a unique perspective on the campaign[7†][8†]. It also presents a somewhat skeptical view of the panhellenist thesis that Persia was vulnerable to concerted attack and a more general view about Greek superiority over barbarians[7†][8†].

His work Cyropaedia is a blend of history and political analysis, presenting an idealized account of Cyrus the Great’s rule[7†]. It reflects Xenophon’s political thought and attempts to align imperial aspirations with Athenian ideals[7†].

Xenophon’s Memorabilia and other Socratic dialogues have been analyzed for their portrayal of Socratic philosophy and ethics[7†]. These works offer valuable insights into Socratic thought and Athenian society[7†].

His work Hellenica, which continues Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War, has been critically evaluated for its historical accuracy and narrative style[7†][9†]. It provides a unique perspective on the events following the Peloponnesian War[7†][9†].

Overall, Xenophon’s works provide a rich source of information about late Classical Greece. His writings reflect his diverse interests and experiences, from military campaigns to philosophical dialogues[7†][3†]. They offer valuable insights into the political, social, and cultural dynamics of his time[7†].

Personal Life

Xenophon was married to Philesia, and together they had two sons[10†]. One of their sons was named Gryllus, after Xenophon’s father[10†]. Gryllus followed in his father’s footsteps, becoming a soldier and fighting for Athens. Tragically, Gryllus was killed in the Battle of Mantinea[10†].

Xenophon’s personal life was significantly impacted by his political affiliations and military service. After Socrates’ trial, Xenophon was exiled from Athens[10†][4†]. He then served under the Spartan King Agesilaus II[10†][4†]. The Spartans, recognizing Xenophon’s service and loyalty, granted him land at Scillus, in Elis[10†][1†][4†]. There, Xenophon lived with his wife and sons, dedicating his time to writing works such as the Anabasis[10†][4†].

Despite being born an Athenian citizen, Xenophon came to be associated with Sparta, the traditional opponent of Athens[10†][2†]. This association, coupled with his service to Sparta, likely contributed to his exile from Athens[10†][11†].

Conclusion and Legacy

Xenophon’s legacy is multifaceted, reflecting his diverse contributions as a historian, philosopher, and military leader[12†][1†]. His works were widely edited and translated in post-Renaissance Europe, and his moral posture and conviction that proper instruction, both practical and moral, could achieve human improvement had an appeal even in a world of secular enlightenment[12†].

However, by the 19th century, the onset of the critical study of historical sources, a growing preference for epistemology over ethics, and the general professionalization of research on the Classical world did Xenophon no favours[12†]. It became harder to find much relevance in his practical treatises, and a political philosophy that appeared monarchic rather than republican was out of tune with the times[12†]. He remained an author commonly read by those learning Greek, but he ceased to be intellectually fashionable both among academics and the wider educated public[12†].

In the late 20th century, his reputation began to rise again[12†]. Scholars became more interested in early 4th-century history and increasingly concerned with socioeconomic structures, social institutions, and gender issues[12†]. There was a considerable increase in the quantity and sophistication of historical work on Persia and Sparta, and war studies regained its status as a respectable branch of sociocultural history[12†]. All these trends made Xenophon an author of crucial importance and encouraged more-discriminating reading of his works[12†].

Xenophon was long characterized as a second-rate practitioner of other people’s literary trades, but more-sympathetic study suggests that the artfully simple style masks a writer of some sophistication[12†]. Xenophon was in the early 21st century starting to be taken seriously as a distinctive voice on the history, society, and intellectual attitudes of the later Classical era[12†].

Key Information

• Also Known As: Jenofonte, Xenophon of Athens[1†][2†]
• Born: c. 430 BCE, Attica, Greece[1†][2†]
• Died: Shortly before 350 BCE, Attica, Greece[1†][2†]
• Nationality: Greek[1†][2†]
• Occupation: Military leader, mercenary, philosopher, historian, writer[1†][2†]
• Notable Works: “Anabasis”, “Hellenica”, “Education of Cyrus”, “Memorabilia”, “Symposium”, “Oeconomicus”, “Hiero”, “Apology”, “Agesilaus”, "Constitution of the Lacedaemonians"[1†][2†]
• Notable Achievements: Xenophon was elected commander of one of the biggest Greek mercenary armies of the Achaemenid Empire, the Ten Thousand, that marched on and came close to capturing Babylon in 401 BC[1†][2†]. He established precedents for many logistical operations and was among the first to describe strategic flanking maneuvers and feints in combat[1†][2†]. His works inspired Alexander the Great and other Greeks to conquer Babylon and the Achaemenid Empire[1†][2†].

References and Citations:

1. Britannica - Xenophon: Greek historian [website] - link
2. Wikipedia (English) - Xenophon [website] - link
3. MasterClass - Just a moment... [website] - link
4. Great Thinkers - Biography - Xenophon [website] - link
5. The Collector - Cyropaedia: What Did Xenophon Write About Cyrus the Great? [website] - link
6. Google Books - The Whole Works of Xenophon - Xenophon [website] - link
7. Academia - Xenophon Ethical Principles and Historical Enquiry - Introduction [website] - link
8. Oxford Classical Dictionary - Xenophon (1), Greek historian [website] - link
9. Academia - A Critical Evaluation of a Selection from Xenophon's Hellenica [website] - link
10. The Famous People - Xenophon Biography [website] - link
11. Britannica - Xenophon summary [website] - link
12. Britannica - Xenophon - Military Strategist, Historian, Philosopher [website] - link